R txt msgs, or the lang of txt spk, gr8 for 2day’s society & pedagogies n composition, rhetorical, & linguistic courses? Or r troubled linguistics correct n worrying “that the proliferation of text messaging…will enforce sloppy, undisciplined habits”? (“Linguists”). 2 b able 2 answer this with ne sort of accurate social comprehension of the lang of txtng, 1 must hv a luv for not only linguistics but also rhetoric and new pedagogical techniques that reflect our field’s staunch belief that students hv a right 2 their own lang & that lang’s history “indicates that change is one of its constant conditions and…that attempts at regulation and the slowing of change have been unsuccessful” (Committee on Conference on College Composition and Communication). 1 must also b able 2 accept txt spk as a legit lang. Those who were taught only the doom & gloom of grammar rather than hw “modern linguists see grammar not as prescriptive but as descriptive” & rather than “teachers who approach the study of grammar as a fascinating analysis of an intensely important human activity, rather than as a series of do's and don'ts” are the h8ers to this significant teaching opp & exercise in semantics (Committee on Conference on College Composition and Communication). While linguists such as American University professor Naomi Baron worry that “so much of American society has become sloppy or laissez faire about the mechanics of writing,” those who dig deeper into txt spk as a discourse community & who do not attach a lack of societal value or prestige 2 its use und that its yet another form of communication & another connection that educators can use 2 relate 2 our modern day students (“Linguists”).
While “the prophets of doom emerge every time a new technology influences language,” according to Dr. David Crystal, linguistics professor & author of Txtng: the Gr8 Db8 and A Little Book of Language, txt spk is believed by many 2 b one of the gr8 lang innovations in modern times (“SMS”). “Nine Ideas About Language” by Harvey Daniels, former college professor, author & literacy education consultant, provides us with a relevant lens to analyze my contention that txt spk indeed has a place in society as a form of legit lang & should b accepted as such. Daniels’ hands-on work with educators at various levels, his knowledge & research on content-area literacy & content-area writing, his “special focus on creating, sustaining, & renewing student-centered inquiries & discussions,” & his combination technique of combining students’ reading & writing strategies w their social skills 2 prepare them 2 b lifelong learners establish his overwhelming ethos 2 discuss matters of linguistics & rhetoric (“Harvey Daniels”). Though Daniels’ essay does not specifically describe txt spk, it is easy 2 c how his ideas can easily translate 2 the lang & how those translations describe the journey from exercises in expressivism, such as txt spk, to exercises in “disciplined thinking [that] comes afterwards during revising,” such as academic discourse, advocated by celebrated rhetorician Peter Elbow (Elbow).
Idea #1:
“Children learn their native language swiftly, efficiently, and largely without instruction”
(Daniels 4).
To give this idea the broadest applicability as possible, one could easily interpret the word “children” as a new learner of the language of text speak. Daniels clearly means children as such in his contention; he establishes their learning processes by stating they use “other speakers as testing devices for their own emerging ideas about language” (4). To properly analyze texting as a legitimate language under this lens, we must all be considered “children,” or new learners, of this technology, as texting is a relatively new form of communication and we as a society are learning to use it and to develop it further together. Daniels’ focus on children learning language through their own hypotheses more so than through imitating the language they hear and the structure of what they hear is in direct correlation with the contention that we as a society learn text speak by sending and receiving texts and advancing our own ideas and definitions of acceptable syntax and grammar more so than mere imitation; we discover “the underlying rules which make up the language,” as it is our job as users of text speak (4).
Daniels’ most poignant and applicable concept relating to the contention is his idea that “the main growth…will not so much be in acquiring new rules as in using new combinations of them to express increasingly sophisticated ideas, and in learning how to use language effectively in a widening variety of social settings” (5). It is clear that from the sheer number of text messages sent annually, which the Cellular Telecommunications Industry Association found to be 4.1 billion per day in 2009, that we have adopted text speak as one of our native languages and have learned to use it swiftly and efficiently (Van Grove). Though no amount of research may ever convert die-hard traditional linguists into advocates of text speak as a legitimate language, they cannot ignore that society has entered a new era of technological expression.
Dr. Kristen Turner, professor of English education at Fordham University, believes that such technology allows students to “be a part of a communication community, but they can manipulate the language in unique ways” (Verel). “Digitalk,” as she refers to the language, did not develop out of random thoughts or boredom, Turner claims; she urges parents and teachers to realize the “sophisticated speech patterns…so we can illustrate how they’re different than the patterns that are meant to be used in school” (Verel). In her recently published essay “Flipping the Switch: Teaching Students to Code-Switch from Text Speak to Standard English,” Turner challenges parents and teachers to view text speak not as “deficient; rather we should embrace students’ existing knowledge…and teach them to negotiate the technology-driven discourse within the confines of school language” (Turner).
Idea #2:
“Language operates by rules” (Daniels 5).
Daniels’ asserts here that language’s foundation is based on a set of rules; that is explicitly applicable to text speak, as it, like the legitimate languages he refers to, “observes grammatical patterns to convey messages” (6). But how can the rules of text speak benefit society and our communication? I contend that linguists and educators can use the debate on text speak as a legitimate language and the breadth of its grammar, syntax and semantics to spark academic discussion and understanding of all variations of language and our ideas about them to promote the art of writing. Sali Tagliamonte, professor of linguistics in Toronto, believes that users of text speak, specifically teenagers, “demonstrate very clearly that their grammatical skills are intact and they very effectively mix it with other types of language” (MacLeod). Daniels relates that belief to learning the rules of language by noting that in learning language “we accomplished the most complex cognitive task of our lives” (6). By learning and using text speak, we as a society accomplish yet another complex cognitive task, and by doing so add to our society’s repertoire of knowledge, comprehension, and skill in writing (6).
The National Council of Teachers of English asserts that “there is little evidence that languages ‘evolve’ in the sense that they become more expressive or more regular; that is, they simply change, but they do not…become better or worse” (Committee on Conference on College Composition and Communication). Consider that “Shakespeare freely used elisions, novel syntax, and several thousand made up words” and that “rules for using the oft-abused apostrophe were set only in the middle of the 19th century”; through the rule-breaking of one of our most beloved writers and the constant change in how we it is apparent that changes in the rules and applications of languages enrich all language (Huang). Besides the fact that the elitist rules of Standard English are being challenged by the all-encompassing structure of text speak, Crystal says that the technology “has introduced that kind of creative spirit into spelling again” (Huang). The naysayers can’t shake their heads in shame at creativity and enthusiasm being reintroduced to issues of linguistics and rhetoric.
A recent study in the British Journal of Developmental Psychology supports the notion that the structure of text speak can spark academic discussion and understanding of all languages, as it showed that “children who regularly texted showcased a richer vocabulary, the ability to better express thoughts in writing, and were aware of the proper spelling of the words they were shortening in most cases” (Mick). Similarly, the National Council of Teachers of English asks educators to rethink our definition of grammar and understand that “the grammar of one American dialect may require ‘he is’ in the third person singular present tense,” but that “the grammar of another dialect may require ‘he be’ in that same slot” (Committee on Conference on College Composition and Communication). While some traditionalists seem to consider it their moral duty to guard the master key to Standard English and its exclusive formalities, the NCTE and progressive linguists are unlocking the idea that semantics more so than grammar guides language, including text speak; more important than “right or wrong, proper or improper,” educators have the opportunity to use semantics to teach students “how people give meaning to words and the way many of those meanings affect us emotionally rather than rationally” (Committee on Conference on College Composition and Communication).
Idea #3: “All languages have three major components:
a sound system, a vocabulary, and system of grammar” (Daniels 6).
One could argue that because text speak exists as a written language, there can be no sound system, therefore disqualifying it from being considered a legitimate language under Daniels’ ideas. But text speak finds its way into spoken language, utilizing the vocal noises as implied in written text speak. Take for instance the word “IDK” in text speak: in Standard English it means “I don’t know,” and it is quite common to hear “IDK” spoken aloud as an answer to a question in a variety of linguistic circles. The same goes for such common text speak words as: “TMI” (meaning “too much information); “TTYL” (meaning “talk to you later”); and “BRB” (meaning “be right back”); “OMG” (meaning “oh my God); and “AFAIK” (meaning “as far as I know”).
These words and others like them are widely believed by language traditionalists, worried parents and concerned citizens to be the language of silly adolescents and of social classes unworthy of linguistic research or inclusion into what is good and proper; by and large, that attitude not only reflects prejudice against social, cultural, political and economic differences, therefore reflecting prejudice against language varieties within those differences, but also snubs pertinent and relevant research that supports the link between text speak and improved literacy and Crystal’s concept that text speak “isn’t a cause of bad spelling: you have to know how to spell before you can text”(Crystal). So as educators, as those educated in linguistics and rhetoric, as those who believe in the power of informal and expressive writing and as those who understand that “students need to be taught mainstream discourses and become critical users of language while also having their home and street codes honored” as well as being offered a “variety of educational experiences that help them make informed decisions about their role and participation in language, literacy, and life,” we can’t afford to snub the use of text speak in writing or in speaking (Conference on English Education Executive Committee). As guardians of an academia that promotes and supports linguistic diversity, we are commissioned with the task of “work[ing] against racial, cultural, linguistic, and socioeconomic inequalities by creating humane classrooms where students and teachers learn to use language and literacy in critical and empowering ways” (Conference on English Education Executive Committee).
In reference to the second element of Daniels’ components of language, one cannot deny that text speak has its own vocabulary. In fact, it is the fact that the vocabulary of “nascent dialect of English that subverts letters and numbers to produce ultra-concise words and sentiments [that] is horrifying language loyalists and pedagogues” as much as how that vocabulary has seeped its way into society (Huang). Examples of commonly used vocabulary words in text speak include:
L8R—later
STR8—straight
BTW—by the way
GTG—got to go/gotta go
LMAO—laughing my ass off
OMG—oh my God!
2MRW—tomorrow
420—marijuana
TY—thank you
YW—you’re welcome
AYK—as you know
BTW—by the way
CUZ—because/cousin
H8R—hater
RUOK—are you ok
LUV—love
WKND—weekend
UR—your/you’re
NE—any
WB—write back
F2T—free to talk
NUTN--nothing
But as a frequent user of text speak, I know that not only conversations via text speak but also the people I converse with become so familiar to me that any word in Standard English can evolve into text speak. The language has been “rendered uneducated and therefore unacceptable” by many linguists, but still other linguists and myself see it as a relaxed and often times informal mode of communication (Thurlow). The fact that text speak has evolved from Standard English and other languages and that is quite common for those of us who use text speak to be able to turn any word from our native language into language of text speak further supports Crystal’s idea that users of text speak can properly use formal grammar and syntax; it seems that our attention to Higher Order of Concerns issues such as audience, purpose, and tone have led us to create this new language.
As for Daniels final element, text speak most certainly has its own system of grammar; that system is at the heart of the debate over text speak triggering the death of Standard English. Besides being a modern communication technique, text speak provides a broader definition to the word “grammar”; it progresses as a language through Aristotle’s five canons of rhetoric, specifically invention, as text speak users discover new ways to overcome limited space and construct innovative and syntactic sentences. As far as its grammar affecting the grammar of Standard English, continue linguistic research such as studies at the University of Toronto have concluded that abbreviated words in Standard English found in the language of text speak “made up only a tiny fraction of the community and that even younger users were getting most of their grammar right” (MacLeod).
Idea #4:
“Everyone speaks a dialect” (Daniels 7).
The issue of dialect in text speak is similar to dialect in formal languages; while geography and culture dictate a variety of dialects, there is a standard dialect in Standard English, though it seems difficult for even linguists to define its boundaries, that is considered superior, and one must master the art of code-switching to be understood bilingually. Daniels states that “there is a good deal of natural pressure to keep language relatively uniform,” but in addition to spatial isolation, “social, economic, occupational, educational, and political” isolation contribute to the maintenance of dialects (Daniels7, 8).
But how do those factors affect text speak? Pressure to maintain dialect is pressure to maintain identity, and in the informal and familiar world of text speak, the aforementioned factors are key elements in preserving both. Consider the case of the 13-year-old Scottish student who composed an entire narrative on her summer activities in text speak. Though even Crystal referred to this case as the “hoax essay from 2003” that is still making its rounds on the Internet and that someone sent him “as ‘evidence’ of the terrible state we’re in,” The British Daily Telegraph broke the news and quoted the student’s teacher as saying, “I could not believe what I was seeing. The page was riddled with hieroglyphics, many of which I simply could not understand” (Crystal) (Thurlow).
Despite whether this essay actually exists, is it so ridiculous to believe that a student felt it was more audience appropriate or natural to write in text speak and she was clutching her identity as a frequent text user who found the language easier to express herself through than Standard English? According to the story, the teacher seemed to consider the use of text speak as an obstacle to the student’s literacy and expression, but she could have easily embraced the fact that the student’s use of and dialect in Scottish-English text speak was a specific rhetorical move to convey a true identity; she also could have used it as an opportunity to teach code-switching to not only the student, but also the entire class to further support their abilities to “navigate from how they talk at home to how they are expected to speak and write in school” (Verel). As far as the essay being applicable as evidence against the state of affairs of writing in the classroom, Crystal says that “if it was a regular happening, or (more to the point) if teachers were letting this happen, we might have cause to worry. But it isn’t. They aren’t. And we shouldn’t” (Crystal).
Idea #5: “Speakers of all languages employ a range of styles and a set of subdialects or jargons” (Daniels 9).
Code-switching is a learned behavior, and Daniels states that because we “range between formal and informal styles of speech” that such an adjustment is something “speakers of all language constantly make” (9). He also notes that “learning the sociolinguistic rules which tell us what sort of speech is appropriate in differing social situations is as much a part of language acquisition as learning how to produce [different] sounds” (9). Text speak users are no different; the dialects, subdialects, and jargon we may use with our parents or relatives is certainly not the same we would use with our friends or classmates.
The rhetorical move of assessing and acknowledging one’s audience is a move text users make with every text message sent. Text speak users not only choose their words carefully, but also choose our response time, our message length, and our overall tone with much thought and consideration for the audience at hand, the purpose of the conversation, and the tone we aim to set. For instance, I respond the quickest to text messages from my husband and best friends. I send them well-constructed text messages, and I exercise the most congenial tone possible as to convey my affection for them and their status in my life. Because there is not body language, facial gestures, or vocal noises associated with written text speak, users must consider other factors in ensuring our messages are conveyed as we intend them.
On the other hand, when I receive a text message from a classmate I am not close with or a family member simply saying “hello,” I am not apt to respond as quickly or as thoroughly. When I receive a forwarded text, usually in the form of a joke, a silly picture, or a chain curse, I rarely respond to the sender; if I do forward it on I consider who in my phone’s address book would enjoy the forward or find it applicable, respectful, and/or relevant before I send it. I would never forward a chain curse about finding someone to love to my husband, nor would I end a text conversation with him without saying “I love you.” And I would never forward my father a crude joke, nor would I send my professor a lengthy description about my weekend social events. I have learned the social regulations needed to code-switch, and I abide by them.
Idea #6: “Language change is normal” (Daniels 13).
The mere existence of text speak as a language is change in language. As I noted before, many linguists believe that innovation in language is simply a natural progression, and one cannot deny that a language that has developed through short messages using alphanumeric keypads on cellular devices is innovation and progression.
Daniels states that there is “plenty of language change which seems to happen spontaneously, sporadically, and without apparent purpose”; text speak seems to adhere perfectly to that statement (13). Granted, we can understand that text speak originated from a need for convenience in communication, but will we ever understand why the language seems to have had such an influence in the worlds of linguistics and rhetoric? Why has it caused such a stir and such a rift between those who supposedly share common goals in the study of language philosophy? “Much text messaging lingo was first used in instant-messaging programs on personal computers, and some phrases, such as ‘SWAK’ for ‘sealed with a kiss,’ have been used for decades,” according to Jesse Sheidlower of the Oxford English Dictionary (“R ur txts”). Since we as a society have had so much exposure to the lingo, Crystal’s belief that text speak is to be “the greatest opportunity for the development of the English language since the advent of the printing press in the Middle Ages” should not prompt so much shock and awe (“SMS”).
The fact that today’s society has become an instant-minded culture, one that is bothered by downloads taking over one minute to process and that considers the sound of dial-up modem to be ancient, is a key factor in understanding not only the origin of text speak, but also the elements of the language itself. The undemanding and unassuming language and syntax rules are ideal for our rushed pace of life. It’s just a matter of looking beyond the idea that text speak is made up of mere abbreviations and persuading naysayers to see the value of the vernacular.
Idea #7: “Languages are intimately related to the societies and individuals who use them” (Daniels 15).
This idea seems to go hand-in-hand with Idea #5; both ideas suggest that cultures have their own identities and that maintaining those identities is important to all speech communities. Yet this idea seems to value our personal code over our academic code; it takes the stand that “the code we use to communicate in the most powerful and intimate experiences of our lives” with those closest to us is “as personal and as integral to each of us as our bodies and our brains” (Daniels 16). This opens the door like no other idea articulated by Daniels to consider text speak a language. Typically text speak is used among close members of a community, though the level of closeness may be different with each member, and in using words and phrases that are personal and relevant to only members of that community, text speak epitomizes itself as the code we use for our intimate experiences.
In “The Language of Texting,” Crispin Thurlow and Michele Poff note “how speech styles constitute different types of social relationships and that style shifting provides a contextual cue for relationship maintenance and conflict management” (Thurlow and Poff). The essay also provides specific demographic information on communities and how text speak is used and even relied upon by their members; for instance, boys in Finland “typically place greater emphasis on speed [sending] single-word or question-answer texts in a single sentence,” while girls in the same study say that “when communicating with boys, the text messages should therefore be very plain and properly written for the boys to understand them” (Thurlow and Poff).
Idea #8: “Value judgments about different languages or dialects are matters of taste” (Daniels 16).
“Especially when we consider the question of mutually intelligible American dialects, we are able to see that most ideas about language differences are purely matters of taste,” according to Daniels (17). Be it the stereotype that Southern people are “either cruelly crafty or just plain dumb” based on our slower speech patterns, or that African American Vernacular English is ghetto and uneducated, one cannot deny that judgments are made based on how we speak (Daniels 17). Never is that more true than in text speak, specifically the written form.
As I said before, because written text speak differs from region to region and because there is no body language, facial gestures, or vocal noises associated with it, only the written words and the tone they set serve as the elements of judgment. The “ya’ll” people from the South may use in text speak and the “you guys” people from New York may write will be judged due to the “history of experiences with each other” and the prejudices that arise from that (Daniels 17). While we may like to believe that all languages are equal, we as a society do not adhere to that belief, as we relentlessly judge others. Users of text speak know this all too well; in addition to our constant analysis of audience, purpose, and tone, we are keenly aware that due to the lack of face-to-face interaction in written text speak, every word we choose to text matters. The words we choose are yet another way we maintain our cultural identities as well as code-switch between the voices we want to use (i.e. academic vs. personal).
Idea #9: “Writing is derivative of speech” (Daniels 18).
Text speak originated from the language and grammar of instant messaging. Instant messaging originated from the need to communicate without wait. Daniels states that specifically in the classroom, “we find ourselves feeling that only in the 19th or 16th century could writers ‘really use the language’ correctly…we teach this notion in our schools, encouraging students to see the language of written literature as the only true and correct style of English” (19). But by encouraging such a notion, we are ignoring the need for progress in and accessibility to language. Text speak would never exist if we ignored that need, and though I am sure some would be more than satisfied with that, I contend that text speak has provided us with yet another outlet to teach not only expressive rhetoric, but also Aristotle’s five canons of rhetoric, audience analysis, and code-switching.
Works Cited
Committee on Conference on College Composition and Communication. “Students’ Right to Their Own Language.” NCTE.org. National Council of Teachers of English. n.d. Web. 16 Jan. 2010.
Conference on English Education Executive Committee. “Supporting Linguistically and Culturally Diverse Learners in English Education.” NCTE.org. National Council of Teachers of English. n.d. Web. 16 Jan. 2010
Crystal, David. “On txtng reactions.” DCBlog. Blogspot.com. Web. 17 Jan. 2010
“Daniels, Harvey A. “Nine Ideas About Language.” Language: Introductory
Readings. Eds. Virginia Clark, Paul Eschholz, Alfred Rosa, Beth Lee Simon. New York: Bedford/St. Martin’s, 2008. 3-20
Elbow, Peter. “Exploring Problems With ‘Personal Writing’ and ‘Expressivism’.” 2002.
Web. 3 Jan. 2010.
“Harvey Daniels.” Heinemann.com. Heinemann Books. n.d. Web. 18 Jan. 2010
Huang, Lily. “The Death of English (LOL).” Newsweek 2 Aug. 2008. n.p. Web.
“Linguists mixed on effects of text messaging.” USA Today. 3 March 2003. n. pg. Web. 9 Oct. 2008.
Lo Dico, Joy. “Watch what you’re saying!: Linguist David Crystal on Twitter, texting and our native tongue.” Rev. of A Little Book of Language by David Crystal. The Independent. 14 March 2010. Web.
MacLeod, Murdo. “Msg is clear as joy.” Scotsman News. 25 May 2008. n. pg. Web. 9 October 2008.
Mick, Jason. “New study claims texting improves language skills in children.” Daily Tech. Daily Tech LLC. 25 Feb. 2009. Web. 15 Jan. 2010
“R ur txt msgs :) or OK?.” CNN.com. CNN. 2003 February 13. Web. 9 Oct. 2009
“SMS greeted with delight by linguistics professor.” Textually.org.Textually. 28 February 2005. Web. 9 Oct. 2009.
Thurlow, Crispin. “From Statistical Panic to Moral Panic: The Metadiscursive
Construction and Popular Exaggeration of New Media Language in the Print Media.” Journal of Computer-Mediated Communication 11.3 (2006): n. pg. Web. 5 Dec. 2009
Thurlow, Crispin and Michele Poff. “The Language of Texting.” Washington.edu. University of Washington. n.d. Web. 20 Jan. 2010
Turner, Kristin. “Flipping the Switch: Code-Switching from Text Speak to Standard English.” English Journal. (May 2009): n. pg. Web. 15 Jan. 2010
Van Grove, Jennifer. “WOW: 4.1 billion SMS messages sent daily.” Mashable.com
Verel, Patrick. “Is txting killin Nglsh @ skool? No way sez Prof.” In Focus: Faculty and Research. Inside Fordham Online. 1 March 2010. Web. 5 March 2010.
This blog focuses on how rhetoric works within aspects of my world. It's easy to see how if rhetoric applies to concepts I value, it can apply to concepts valued by anyone. To understand what rhetoric is means you see the world through a new, enlightened set of eyes; it means you understand the world more intensely, more progressively, more precisely, and more academically. Read on and enjoy.
Wednesday, April 21, 2010
Rhetorical Empowerment: Tattoos & Body Piercings asVisual Rhetoric of Resistance
“Censor the body, and you censor breath and speech at the same time. Write yourself. Your body must be heard” (Cixous). Feminist writer Helene Cixous’ powerful rhetorical resistance revisits the invention canon of rhetoric as a source of empowerment, particularly to those oppressed due to sex, race, and/or socio-economic factors. Her fellow writer and discourse analyst Michel Foucault believes that no matter how oppressive and controlling an institution or system, there will always be room and opportunity for resistance. His concern for the health of the social body focuses on the placement of power throughout even the smallest level of social relations, as he invites people to resist in order to change the status quo. And feminist theorist Julia Kristeva accounts for women’s oppression in patriarchal societies by claiming women’s role is reduced to merely maternal function; she resists the common feminist theory of rejecting motherhood and insists that “real female innovation in whatever field will only come about when maternity, female, creation, and the link between them are better understood” (Oliver).
These renowned rhetoricians use the concepts of power, influence, and semiotics to resist the status quo on many fronts, and their rhetoric of resistance serves to empower. These rhetoricians’ ideals are reincarnated in social movements and art forms, specifically tattoos and body piercings. These art forms and the work of these rhetoricians transcend the trendiness of angst and rebellion, are rich in history and tradition, establish self-identity and demonstrate the internal and external struggle to maintain it, and exercise the canons of invention, arrangement, style, memory and delivery. Most importantly, all are rooted in the intrinsic value of resisting the status quo. Be it resisting a limited definition of beauty, a narrow interpretation of art, a cookie-cutter existence in mainstream society, or an exclusion from an “in-crowd,” tattoos and body piercings are the reincarnation of Cixous’, Foucault’s and Kristeva’s values and are today’s rhetoric of resistance.
Rhetoricians & Resistance
Cixous successfully uses her rhetoric to resist women’s oppression and the idea that it is acceptable to continue the historical exclusion of women from rhetoric, among other fields. In her renowned essay “The Laugh of the Medusa,” not only does she implore women to write with no regard for the “smug-faced readers, managing editors and big bosses [who] don’t like the true texts of women—female-sexed texts,” but she also advocates for writing to be considered a duty by women; she proclaims that “it is by writing, from and toward women, and by taking up the challenge of speech which has been governed by the phallus, that women will confirm women in a place other than that which is reserved in and by the symbolic, that is a place other than silence” (Cixous).
The feminine writing practice of “writing the body,” according to Cixous, is a “new insurgent writing” bringing women liberation; it gives women back the bodies “which [have] been more than confiscated,” and it will serve as a catalyst to women “seizing the opportunity to speak, hence shattering entry into history, which has always been based on suppression” (Cixous). Cixous’ desire to empower women to resist stems from her sincere belief that writing sparks transformation and discourse, and throughout history women have not had adequate opportunities to be heard and spark transformation we desire to see. She also implies that writing and sexuality are inseparably intertwined and that to write from the body will purge women from society’s stifling hierarchal structure and make us initiators of change rather than disciples of the status quo. She writes that through “this job of analysis and illumination,” women will remove ourselves from the “place reserved for the guilty (guilty of everything, guilty at every turn: for having desires, for not having any; for being too frigid, for being ‘too hot’; for not being both at once;…for having children and for not having any…)” (Cixous).
Though her verbiage of resistance seems to be such a clear message of liberation and equality, her theories on the sexual opposition and its historical power struggle prompt much debate even in her own rhetorical subculture. Feminists have condemned Cixous for her insistence on reclaiming the maternal function and for being an essentialist; in her book Helene Cixous: A Politics of Writing, Morag Shiach writes that Cixous’ critics say she "reduces women to an essence ... and thus negates the possibility of the very change which she seeks to promote" (Shiach).
Much like Cixous, Foucault’s rhetoric of resistance exists vividly in the theories on power and the oppressed. His desire to stand “outside of the culture to which we belong, to analyze its formal conditions in order to make a critique of it, not in the sense of reducing its value, but in order to see how it was actually constituted” is how he defines his form of research and philosophy. His theories of power are in stark contrast to “more traditional liberal and Marxist theories of power”; Foucault has alluded to his work in social criticism being rooted in Kant and has admitted being especially influenced by ideas on the evolution of morality espoused by Nietzsche (Allen).
In his biography Face to Face written by Roger Pol-Driot, Foucault discusses his views on how the oppressed are perceived, among other concepts; he says “If you are not like everybody else, then you are abnormal. If you are abnormal, then you are sick. These three categories—not being like everybody else, not being normal, and being sick—are in fact very different, but have been reduced to the same thing” (Pol-Droit). But because he views power as an ever-changing struggle and he acknowledges power’s existence not only in institutions but also throughout the social body, Foucault believes power can be productive through its link to knowledge. He claims that though he seeks knowledge and contemplates truth, he is not a theorist, or “someone who constructs a general system either deductive or analytical and applies it to different fields in a uniform way,” but that instead he experiments “to write in order to change myself and in order not to think the same thing as before” (Foucault). Foucault seems to attach the duty of prompting change (read: resisting) to acquiring knowledge and writing the truth we find, and through his exhaustive analysis and criticism of the power struggles within economic, social, philosophical, medical, ethical, and political institutions he most certainly fulfilled his duty.
Such value on rhetoric and resistance can also be found in the concepts and writing of Kristeva whose resistance to the defining characteristics of feminism led to her argument for three phases of feminism in her essay “Women’s Time.” The first phase, which Kristeva explicitly disagrees with, “seeks universal equality and overlooks sexual differences”; in this phase, she does not reject motherhood per se, but instead contends that we need a different discourse for it outside of religion and science (Oliver). The second phase, which she also disagrees with, “seeks a uniquely feminine language, which she thinks is an impossible”; in this phase, Kristeva writes that “women seek to give a language to the intrasubjective and corporeal experiences left mute by culture in the past” (Oliver). She claims that language and culture are not merely patriarchal functions, but that “they are the domain of speaking beings and women are primarily speaking beings” (Oliver). The third phase, which Kristeva agrees with, redefines identity and sexual difference; though she claims there is “radicalness [in] the process” of accepting multiple identities,
she says that the process could be “summarized as an…introduction of its cutting edge into the very interior of every identity whether subjective, sexual, ideological, and so forth” (Kristeva).
Kristeva has focused her attention on the concept of the body when discussing her feminist concepts, specifically emphasizing the maternal function and how cultures reduce it to mothers or women. Her analysis of the connection between women, maternity and femininity and how they have been reduced just as the maternal function has shows that “misplaced abjection is one way to account for women's oppression and degradation within patriarchal cultures” (Oliver).
The concepts of power, confrontation, stereotypes, individual freedom, and self-identity intertwine throughout these rhetoricians’ staunch writings on the value of working actively for change; such exercises in resistance against status quos are exercises in empowerment. The same concepts intertwine throughout the meanings behind tattoos and body piercings; such forms of rhetorical expression and exercises in resistance against status quos are also exercises in empowerment. If the rhetorical value of Cixous, Foucault, and Kristeva was ever misunderstood, one need only look at their applications of rhetoric’s five canons to issues of societal ills and the appeal in their written words to stimulate change. If the need to resist was ever considered dated or no longer necessary, one need only look to the movement of tattoos and body piercings, as the goals and power of the arts are inextricably linked to the goals and power of resistance.
What is Rhetoric?
To accept tattoos and body piercings as rhetoric of resistance, we must first define rhetoric. In his acclaimed article “The Myth of the Rhetorical Situation,” rhetorical scholar Professor Richard E. Vatz defines rhetoric as “the art of linguistically or symbolically creating salience” (Vatz). He notes that “after salience is created, the situation must be translated into meaning” (Vatz). In that, he credits rhetoricians for creating meaning as opposed to meaning being discovered in rhetorical situations; he says that translating information into meaning is “an act of creativity. It is an interpretative act. It is a rhetorical act of transcendence” (Vatz). Since I believe my tattoos and body piercings are pieces of rhetoric, then according to Vatz I must recognize my moral responsibility in the “creation of reality or salience rather than a reflector of reality”; I must also acknowledge that rhetoric will only be truly respected “when the meaning is seen as the result of a creative act and not a discovery” (Vatz).
Communication scholar and argumentation theorist Douglas Ehninger contends that rhetoric is the discipline in which we study how we “influence each other's thinking and behavior through the strategic use of symbols” (American Rhetoric). That perspective would seem to include verbal and nonverbal discourse, as Ehninger notes contemporary rhetorical theories “entertain the still broader purpose of exploring the social significance of the communicative act in all of its forms and uses” (Ehninger). Again, since I believe my tattoos and body piercings are pieces of rhetoric, then according to Ehninger I must accept that rhetoric is “designed to do rather than to merely be”; I must also accept that “there are many different rhetorics, each growing out of a particular set of social and cultural needs and designed to meet a contemporary purpose” (Ehninger).
Rhetorician Jacques Derrida advises that rhetoric is an art that should be taught through pragmatics; he notes that “the effects of rhetoric don't depend only on the way you utter words, the way you use tropes, the way you compose” (Olsen). He also advises that, as rhetoricians, we must strive to deconstruct rhetoric and rigid modes of composition and “invent each time new forms according to the situation” (Olsen). Once again, since I believe my tattoos and body piercings are pieces of rhetoric, then according to Derrida I must consider that rhetoric is contingent upon “the situation, the audience, your own purpose” (Olsen). Certainly those apply to all forms of rhetoric, including tattoos and body piercings; it’s almost as if the arts are their own genres.
Tattoos and body piercings are a combination of the definitions and concepts above: they are symbols of salience strategically placed on bodies to express, persuade, and/or reveal the most effective message possible, and they depend on the intertextuality of rhetorical situations, familial narratives, significant memories and our need to express and identify ourselves.
The Rhetoric of Tattoos
Tattoos are an extension of one’s personality, beliefs, and identity; by that they are permanent pieces of rhetoric through the invention, arrangement, style, memory, and delivery it took to create the art. Though merely gazing upon these pieces of rhetoric cannot grant one a complete understanding of the tattooed, it provides a peek into her values, style, and emotions. From a well-hidden butterfly tattooed on her shoulder to a large piece of custom work across her back, tattoos are pieces of visual rhetoric, or semiotics, that comprise her grammar of fashion and self-expression.
John Long, renowned tattoo artist and owner of John Long Tattoo in Shanghai, believes that rhetorical value exists in tattoos because of people’s need to understand ourselves. He says:
Human beings also wish for a bridge linking spirit and flesh, and tattoo is just the best way they can find to express themselves. In my view, the wealthier the materials human beings enjoy in this increasingly developed and prosperous world, the poorer and hollower they may feel spiritually. Therefore in my opinion, more and more people take to tattoo and hope to compensate somehow for their hollowness and vacancy through this way. They try to express their inner worlds, to give vent to their desires, and to find balance between spirit and flesh. To a large degree I think that this accounts for the inevitable trend towards the popularity of tattoo. (McCabe)
In his words, the five canons of rhetoric are obviously present, specifically the canon of invention through his metaphor of a “bridge linking spirit and flesh” (McCabe). Long believes in the need for both tattoo artists and those who get tattoos to retain ownership of their own ideas and style in the art of tattooing and not merely follow trends (McCabe). If we must write ourselves as Cixous believes, then we must listen to ourselves, value our own ideals, and not rely on other influences to construct our identity.
Take for instance the pink sprinkled cupcake I have tattooed on my left hip. Anyone can look at it and infer that cupcakes say something about who I am. Some may assume I merely chose the design off of a tattoo studio’s wall of art; others may assume it’s a symbol of sweetness and innocence. Inevitably, when it is visible someone has the interest to ask about its meaning, and I share my story of my favorite childhood T-shirt and blue jeans that had a pink sprinkled cupcake embroidered on them. Looking at that tattoo takes me back to 1982 when my father pretended to let me help mow the yard and my mother was alive and in good health. No one can understand the beauty of that time for me, the sense of nostalgia I feel when I think of my father lifting me up to reach the heavy push mower’s handle, or the grief I feel now that my mother has been gone for 22 years. No one has lived my days, so no one will truly grasp my personal rhetoric.
Chris Thomas, tattoo artist and co-owner of Golden Lotus Tattoo Studio, believes that even if someone chooses a pre-drawn tattoo from his wall of designs, there is a personal rhetorical choice being made. Thousands of designs from tiny red hearts to religious icons such as praying hands to old school icons such as skulls, crossbones, and naked pin-up girls adorn his studio’s walls, and hundreds of clients a month choose one of these designs to be permanently inked onto their bodies. But Thomas says that even though he prefers his clients to come in with ideas for custom work, he realizes “even though they may lack the originality of a custom idea, their choice of design says something about a happy time, a memory, a lost loved one, or a goal they want to remember for the rest of their lives. Even where they put the tattoo says something about how much of their personality they are willing to share with the world” (Thomas).
Embry-Riddle Aeronautical University’s Christina Frederick-Recascino, professor of psychology, finds that peer pressure is by far not the primary motivation for getting a tattoo. In fact, she says that the majority of those who get tattoos are “choosing it as a way to reflect their identity”; she notes that her work indicates a deeper motivation such as that a tattoo "represents inner personality, interests, life goals, life philosophy” (“Tattoos. Pierce. How Come?”). She also notes that while outdated stereotypes of those with tattoos aligned one with a specific culture, now those who get tattoos “really put thought into what they want to put on their body” (“Tattoos. Pierce. How Come?”). Considering the rhetorical choices present in these findings as well as the intertextuality of millions of personal stories behind tattoos all over the world, how can tattoos not be considered personal rhetoric?
The Resistance and Empowerment of Tattoos
The same ideals apply to the concept of tattoos as rhetoric of resistance. My cupcake tattoo, though a symbol of my own personal rhetoric, is a form of resistance as well. The irony of a sweet childhood memory representing my resistance of the cookie-cutter existence my mother and father so wished for me screams at the duality of who I am. I am also acutely aware that even though this is the year 2010 and my home state of Arkansas has made great strides in social progress, it is still very much part of the Bible Belt. I hope my budding collection of 18 tattoos differentiates me from the stereotypical Arkansan portrayed in the media; I’m sure we would all much rather be thought of as distinct individuals as opposed to members of pre-determined groups or ridiculous stereotypes.
Knowing that I’ve been strong enough to make such permanent rhetorical choices, specifically to separate myself from who I am “supposed” to be, empowers me. Also, knowing that I sat still long enough for thousands of tiny needle strokes to puncture my skin to form an image I deem as meaningful and beautiful reminds me that my conviction for my personal rhetoric was strong enough that I withstood the pain and invested the time and money. Thomas says that concept is what pulls people through the experience of being tattooed. He says that “even the toughest of the tough guys come in and wince and jump around at the sight and sound of the gun,” but that their “need to make a personal statement and their ability to live through it gives them an adrenaline rush of independence and strength” (Thomas).
I have a large custom piece consisting of blue angel wings, a gold halo, and my mother’s name that I had tattooed on my lower back on the 20th anniversary of her death. I’ve shed a few tears and screamed a few four-letter words while being tattooed, but this tattoo was the first one to ever make me lose consciousness. My body convulsed and perspired as a reaction to not only the physical pain, but also the emotional toil and significance of the tribute; Thomas, the artist, caught me from hitting the floor of his tattoo studio just as we approached the second hour of the session.
When I regained consciousness, I quickly became so afraid of experiencing that intensity again that I thought I wouldn’t be able to allow him to finish. But I looked at the unfinished image in the mirror and saw a fragmented tribute to my mother; that was unacceptable. I composed myself and asked Thomas to finish as tears welled in my eyes. I told myself that if my mother could bear the physical toil of childbirth to bring me into the world, I could bear another hour of needles puncturing my skin to complete my tribute to her. If that isn’t empowering, I’m not sure what is.
The Rhetoric of Body Piercings
If tattoos are a combination of symbols strategically placed on bodies to express, persuade, and/or reveal the most effective message possible and they depend on the intertextuality of rhetorical situations, familial narratives, significant memories, then body piercings must follow in their footsteps. Outside of the stereotype that piercings typically tag along with tattoos in several lifestyles, both movements hinge on the need for expression.
Body piercings, though once regarded as only a tradition for primitive people, are now much like tattooing; they are considered art and symbols of cultural identity. They have graduated well beyond ear piercing, the ever-so-trendy navel piercing of the 1990s, and even the gothic fashion they were once so widely associated with. Pamela Cantor, a psychology instructor at The Cambridge Hospital and Harvard Medical School, says that piercings are looked at upon as more of a social event now; people who get pierced today do it like “the way people in an earlier generation would go to a sleepover and polish nails” (“Tattoos. Pierce. How Come?”).
Jennifer Hathcoat, body piercer and co-owner of Golden Lotus Tattoo Studios, considers body piercings to be a rhetorical choice; she says it is an “accent that adds beauty to someone’s body and tells something about who they are” (Hathcoat). But she also considers it to be a work of art for both the piercer and the pierced in that it is “a lifestyle…it’s more than just a simple stick with a needle. It involves placement of accent to flow with the body part being pierced” (Hathcoat). Clearly Hathcoat is denying that piercings are merely a mark of certain lifestyles and is affirming that having them is a lifestyle in and of itself.
Joan Jacobs Brumberg, author of The Body Project: An Intimate History of American Girls, would seem to agree; she contends that “piercings prove, in a public way, that your body is your own,” a reincarnation of Cixous’ belief that your body must be heard (134). And while Brumberg agrees that personal politics are at play with piercings, she also acknowledges them to be “a symbol of sexual liberation” as well (134).
The Resistance and Empowerment of Body Piercings
But how, if like tattoos, are body piercings rhetoric of resistance if they are simultaneously so fashionable? Hathcoat again gestures to difference in lifestyle. She says that “it’s not always easy. I’m sure I’m judged mainly because of my stretched ear piercings, but having them is a part of who I am no matter who relates to them or who doesn’t like them” (Hathcoat). She also notes that there are many trends that differentiate groups of people who are not necessarily found to be universally appealing, but who are widely accepted, such as “certain hairstyles, long black trench coats on a certain looking white male, tie-dyed and hippie style clothes, and oversized baggy jerseys and jeans.” She argues that “it’s just a matter of what the piercing means to you and your motive for getting it” (Hathcoat).
I remember my father coming to see me when I lived in Las Vegas in 1997. He’d heard me on the phone a few days before and said I sounded strange. Of course I didn’t tell him it was because I paid for a needle to be shoved through my tongue and a 12-gauge barbell now resided there. So needless to say when he saw it, he understood why I sounded the way I did and he was not amused. He disapproved of my brother wearing a diamond stud in his ear in the 1980s when that was all the rage; a barbell through my tongue was a completely foreign and ghastly thing to have, especially for his daughter who he so wanted to be pristine like her mother. I was raised with my parent’s wishes for me to have lady-like crossed legs, pageant-perfect hair, and porcelain doll skin. The girly-girl in me liked the idea of such beauty, but the rebel in me always pushed for more room in the definition of beauty. My father came to understand and even encourage that independent side of me while raising me alone after my mother’s death, but the tongue piercing was still a shock. I didn’t do it to hurt or shock him; I did it because the rebel in me always wins, and I firmly believed I could do my part to stretch the definition of beauty and acceptance of differences. That type of resistance is always empowering.
To resist is empowering. Like Foucault believes, there will always be room and reason for resistance. Political, sexual, personal, and social resistance all rely on rhetorical theories and strategies to empower the oppressed and persuade change. The rhetoric of Cixous, Foucault, and Kristeva are forever connected to the rhetoric of tattoos and body piercings; both the rhetoricians and the art forms use exercises in rhetoric to place personal politics at the forefront of their motives, and both empower through resistance. “One must remember that power is not an ensemble of negation, refusal, exclusion. But it produces effectively. It is likely that power produces right down to individuals themselves,” according to Foucault (Foucault). Knowing that reminds me that the powers of rhetoric and of resistance are alive and well in the arts of tattooing and body piercing, and that gives me hope that there will always be someone to challenge status quos.
Works Cited
Allen, Daniel. “Michel Foucault and His Concepts.” Michel-Foucault.com. 2 April 2008. Web. 2 Jan. 2010
American Rhetoric. Scholarly Definitions of Rhetoric. Americanrhetoric.com. 23 April 2008. Web. 2 Jan. 2010
Brumberg, Joan Jacobs. The Body Project: An Intimate History of
American Girls. Vintage Books: New York, 1997.
Cixous, Helene, Keith Cohen and Paula Cohen. “The Laugh of the Medusa.” Signs 1. 4 (1976): 875-893. JSTOR. Web. 15 Jan 2010
Ehninger, Douglas. “The Promise of Rhetoric: A Ten-Year Review.” Rhetoric Society Quarterly 18.2 (1988): 191-200. JSTOR. Web. 2 Jan. 2010
Foucault, Michel. Power. New Press: New York, 2001.
Hathcoat, Jennifer. Personal interview. 22 April 2008.
Kristeva, Julia, Alice Jardine and Harry Blake. “Women’s Time.” Signs 7.1 (1981): 13-35. JSTOR. Web. 15 Jan 2010
McCabe, Mike. “A Conversation with John Long.” Tattoos.com. 2006. Web. 4 Jan. 2010.
Oliver, Kelly. “Kristeva and Feminism.” Center for Digital Discourse and
Culture at Virginia Tech. March 1998. Web. 2 April 2008.
Olsen, Gary A. " Jacques Derrida on Rhetoric and Composition: A Conversation." Journal of Advanced Composition 10.1 (1990) 15-16
Pol-Droit, Roger. Face to Face. Odile Jacob: New York, 2004.
Shiach, Morag. Helene Cixous: A Politics of Writing. Routledge: New York, 1991.
“Tattoo. Pierce. How Come?.” The Body as Canvas. 2004. University of
Wisconsin Board of Regents. Web. 3 April 2008.
Thomas, Chris. Personal interview. 22 April 2008.
Vatz, Richard E. “The Myth of the Rhetorical Situation.” University of Washington, n.d. Web. 2 Jan. 2010.
These renowned rhetoricians use the concepts of power, influence, and semiotics to resist the status quo on many fronts, and their rhetoric of resistance serves to empower. These rhetoricians’ ideals are reincarnated in social movements and art forms, specifically tattoos and body piercings. These art forms and the work of these rhetoricians transcend the trendiness of angst and rebellion, are rich in history and tradition, establish self-identity and demonstrate the internal and external struggle to maintain it, and exercise the canons of invention, arrangement, style, memory and delivery. Most importantly, all are rooted in the intrinsic value of resisting the status quo. Be it resisting a limited definition of beauty, a narrow interpretation of art, a cookie-cutter existence in mainstream society, or an exclusion from an “in-crowd,” tattoos and body piercings are the reincarnation of Cixous’, Foucault’s and Kristeva’s values and are today’s rhetoric of resistance.
Rhetoricians & Resistance
Cixous successfully uses her rhetoric to resist women’s oppression and the idea that it is acceptable to continue the historical exclusion of women from rhetoric, among other fields. In her renowned essay “The Laugh of the Medusa,” not only does she implore women to write with no regard for the “smug-faced readers, managing editors and big bosses [who] don’t like the true texts of women—female-sexed texts,” but she also advocates for writing to be considered a duty by women; she proclaims that “it is by writing, from and toward women, and by taking up the challenge of speech which has been governed by the phallus, that women will confirm women in a place other than that which is reserved in and by the symbolic, that is a place other than silence” (Cixous).
The feminine writing practice of “writing the body,” according to Cixous, is a “new insurgent writing” bringing women liberation; it gives women back the bodies “which [have] been more than confiscated,” and it will serve as a catalyst to women “seizing the opportunity to speak, hence shattering entry into history, which has always been based on suppression” (Cixous). Cixous’ desire to empower women to resist stems from her sincere belief that writing sparks transformation and discourse, and throughout history women have not had adequate opportunities to be heard and spark transformation we desire to see. She also implies that writing and sexuality are inseparably intertwined and that to write from the body will purge women from society’s stifling hierarchal structure and make us initiators of change rather than disciples of the status quo. She writes that through “this job of analysis and illumination,” women will remove ourselves from the “place reserved for the guilty (guilty of everything, guilty at every turn: for having desires, for not having any; for being too frigid, for being ‘too hot’; for not being both at once;…for having children and for not having any…)” (Cixous).
Though her verbiage of resistance seems to be such a clear message of liberation and equality, her theories on the sexual opposition and its historical power struggle prompt much debate even in her own rhetorical subculture. Feminists have condemned Cixous for her insistence on reclaiming the maternal function and for being an essentialist; in her book Helene Cixous: A Politics of Writing, Morag Shiach writes that Cixous’ critics say she "reduces women to an essence ... and thus negates the possibility of the very change which she seeks to promote" (Shiach).
Much like Cixous, Foucault’s rhetoric of resistance exists vividly in the theories on power and the oppressed. His desire to stand “outside of the culture to which we belong, to analyze its formal conditions in order to make a critique of it, not in the sense of reducing its value, but in order to see how it was actually constituted” is how he defines his form of research and philosophy. His theories of power are in stark contrast to “more traditional liberal and Marxist theories of power”; Foucault has alluded to his work in social criticism being rooted in Kant and has admitted being especially influenced by ideas on the evolution of morality espoused by Nietzsche (Allen).
In his biography Face to Face written by Roger Pol-Driot, Foucault discusses his views on how the oppressed are perceived, among other concepts; he says “If you are not like everybody else, then you are abnormal. If you are abnormal, then you are sick. These three categories—not being like everybody else, not being normal, and being sick—are in fact very different, but have been reduced to the same thing” (Pol-Droit). But because he views power as an ever-changing struggle and he acknowledges power’s existence not only in institutions but also throughout the social body, Foucault believes power can be productive through its link to knowledge. He claims that though he seeks knowledge and contemplates truth, he is not a theorist, or “someone who constructs a general system either deductive or analytical and applies it to different fields in a uniform way,” but that instead he experiments “to write in order to change myself and in order not to think the same thing as before” (Foucault). Foucault seems to attach the duty of prompting change (read: resisting) to acquiring knowledge and writing the truth we find, and through his exhaustive analysis and criticism of the power struggles within economic, social, philosophical, medical, ethical, and political institutions he most certainly fulfilled his duty.
Such value on rhetoric and resistance can also be found in the concepts and writing of Kristeva whose resistance to the defining characteristics of feminism led to her argument for three phases of feminism in her essay “Women’s Time.” The first phase, which Kristeva explicitly disagrees with, “seeks universal equality and overlooks sexual differences”; in this phase, she does not reject motherhood per se, but instead contends that we need a different discourse for it outside of religion and science (Oliver). The second phase, which she also disagrees with, “seeks a uniquely feminine language, which she thinks is an impossible”; in this phase, Kristeva writes that “women seek to give a language to the intrasubjective and corporeal experiences left mute by culture in the past” (Oliver). She claims that language and culture are not merely patriarchal functions, but that “they are the domain of speaking beings and women are primarily speaking beings” (Oliver). The third phase, which Kristeva agrees with, redefines identity and sexual difference; though she claims there is “radicalness [in] the process” of accepting multiple identities,
she says that the process could be “summarized as an…introduction of its cutting edge into the very interior of every identity whether subjective, sexual, ideological, and so forth” (Kristeva).
Kristeva has focused her attention on the concept of the body when discussing her feminist concepts, specifically emphasizing the maternal function and how cultures reduce it to mothers or women. Her analysis of the connection between women, maternity and femininity and how they have been reduced just as the maternal function has shows that “misplaced abjection is one way to account for women's oppression and degradation within patriarchal cultures” (Oliver).
The concepts of power, confrontation, stereotypes, individual freedom, and self-identity intertwine throughout these rhetoricians’ staunch writings on the value of working actively for change; such exercises in resistance against status quos are exercises in empowerment. The same concepts intertwine throughout the meanings behind tattoos and body piercings; such forms of rhetorical expression and exercises in resistance against status quos are also exercises in empowerment. If the rhetorical value of Cixous, Foucault, and Kristeva was ever misunderstood, one need only look at their applications of rhetoric’s five canons to issues of societal ills and the appeal in their written words to stimulate change. If the need to resist was ever considered dated or no longer necessary, one need only look to the movement of tattoos and body piercings, as the goals and power of the arts are inextricably linked to the goals and power of resistance.
What is Rhetoric?
To accept tattoos and body piercings as rhetoric of resistance, we must first define rhetoric. In his acclaimed article “The Myth of the Rhetorical Situation,” rhetorical scholar Professor Richard E. Vatz defines rhetoric as “the art of linguistically or symbolically creating salience” (Vatz). He notes that “after salience is created, the situation must be translated into meaning” (Vatz). In that, he credits rhetoricians for creating meaning as opposed to meaning being discovered in rhetorical situations; he says that translating information into meaning is “an act of creativity. It is an interpretative act. It is a rhetorical act of transcendence” (Vatz). Since I believe my tattoos and body piercings are pieces of rhetoric, then according to Vatz I must recognize my moral responsibility in the “creation of reality or salience rather than a reflector of reality”; I must also acknowledge that rhetoric will only be truly respected “when the meaning is seen as the result of a creative act and not a discovery” (Vatz).
Communication scholar and argumentation theorist Douglas Ehninger contends that rhetoric is the discipline in which we study how we “influence each other's thinking and behavior through the strategic use of symbols” (American Rhetoric). That perspective would seem to include verbal and nonverbal discourse, as Ehninger notes contemporary rhetorical theories “entertain the still broader purpose of exploring the social significance of the communicative act in all of its forms and uses” (Ehninger). Again, since I believe my tattoos and body piercings are pieces of rhetoric, then according to Ehninger I must accept that rhetoric is “designed to do rather than to merely be”; I must also accept that “there are many different rhetorics, each growing out of a particular set of social and cultural needs and designed to meet a contemporary purpose” (Ehninger).
Rhetorician Jacques Derrida advises that rhetoric is an art that should be taught through pragmatics; he notes that “the effects of rhetoric don't depend only on the way you utter words, the way you use tropes, the way you compose” (Olsen). He also advises that, as rhetoricians, we must strive to deconstruct rhetoric and rigid modes of composition and “invent each time new forms according to the situation” (Olsen). Once again, since I believe my tattoos and body piercings are pieces of rhetoric, then according to Derrida I must consider that rhetoric is contingent upon “the situation, the audience, your own purpose” (Olsen). Certainly those apply to all forms of rhetoric, including tattoos and body piercings; it’s almost as if the arts are their own genres.
Tattoos and body piercings are a combination of the definitions and concepts above: they are symbols of salience strategically placed on bodies to express, persuade, and/or reveal the most effective message possible, and they depend on the intertextuality of rhetorical situations, familial narratives, significant memories and our need to express and identify ourselves.
The Rhetoric of Tattoos
Tattoos are an extension of one’s personality, beliefs, and identity; by that they are permanent pieces of rhetoric through the invention, arrangement, style, memory, and delivery it took to create the art. Though merely gazing upon these pieces of rhetoric cannot grant one a complete understanding of the tattooed, it provides a peek into her values, style, and emotions. From a well-hidden butterfly tattooed on her shoulder to a large piece of custom work across her back, tattoos are pieces of visual rhetoric, or semiotics, that comprise her grammar of fashion and self-expression.
John Long, renowned tattoo artist and owner of John Long Tattoo in Shanghai, believes that rhetorical value exists in tattoos because of people’s need to understand ourselves. He says:
Human beings also wish for a bridge linking spirit and flesh, and tattoo is just the best way they can find to express themselves. In my view, the wealthier the materials human beings enjoy in this increasingly developed and prosperous world, the poorer and hollower they may feel spiritually. Therefore in my opinion, more and more people take to tattoo and hope to compensate somehow for their hollowness and vacancy through this way. They try to express their inner worlds, to give vent to their desires, and to find balance between spirit and flesh. To a large degree I think that this accounts for the inevitable trend towards the popularity of tattoo. (McCabe)
In his words, the five canons of rhetoric are obviously present, specifically the canon of invention through his metaphor of a “bridge linking spirit and flesh” (McCabe). Long believes in the need for both tattoo artists and those who get tattoos to retain ownership of their own ideas and style in the art of tattooing and not merely follow trends (McCabe). If we must write ourselves as Cixous believes, then we must listen to ourselves, value our own ideals, and not rely on other influences to construct our identity.
Take for instance the pink sprinkled cupcake I have tattooed on my left hip. Anyone can look at it and infer that cupcakes say something about who I am. Some may assume I merely chose the design off of a tattoo studio’s wall of art; others may assume it’s a symbol of sweetness and innocence. Inevitably, when it is visible someone has the interest to ask about its meaning, and I share my story of my favorite childhood T-shirt and blue jeans that had a pink sprinkled cupcake embroidered on them. Looking at that tattoo takes me back to 1982 when my father pretended to let me help mow the yard and my mother was alive and in good health. No one can understand the beauty of that time for me, the sense of nostalgia I feel when I think of my father lifting me up to reach the heavy push mower’s handle, or the grief I feel now that my mother has been gone for 22 years. No one has lived my days, so no one will truly grasp my personal rhetoric.
Chris Thomas, tattoo artist and co-owner of Golden Lotus Tattoo Studio, believes that even if someone chooses a pre-drawn tattoo from his wall of designs, there is a personal rhetorical choice being made. Thousands of designs from tiny red hearts to religious icons such as praying hands to old school icons such as skulls, crossbones, and naked pin-up girls adorn his studio’s walls, and hundreds of clients a month choose one of these designs to be permanently inked onto their bodies. But Thomas says that even though he prefers his clients to come in with ideas for custom work, he realizes “even though they may lack the originality of a custom idea, their choice of design says something about a happy time, a memory, a lost loved one, or a goal they want to remember for the rest of their lives. Even where they put the tattoo says something about how much of their personality they are willing to share with the world” (Thomas).
Embry-Riddle Aeronautical University’s Christina Frederick-Recascino, professor of psychology, finds that peer pressure is by far not the primary motivation for getting a tattoo. In fact, she says that the majority of those who get tattoos are “choosing it as a way to reflect their identity”; she notes that her work indicates a deeper motivation such as that a tattoo "represents inner personality, interests, life goals, life philosophy” (“Tattoos. Pierce. How Come?”). She also notes that while outdated stereotypes of those with tattoos aligned one with a specific culture, now those who get tattoos “really put thought into what they want to put on their body” (“Tattoos. Pierce. How Come?”). Considering the rhetorical choices present in these findings as well as the intertextuality of millions of personal stories behind tattoos all over the world, how can tattoos not be considered personal rhetoric?
The Resistance and Empowerment of Tattoos
The same ideals apply to the concept of tattoos as rhetoric of resistance. My cupcake tattoo, though a symbol of my own personal rhetoric, is a form of resistance as well. The irony of a sweet childhood memory representing my resistance of the cookie-cutter existence my mother and father so wished for me screams at the duality of who I am. I am also acutely aware that even though this is the year 2010 and my home state of Arkansas has made great strides in social progress, it is still very much part of the Bible Belt. I hope my budding collection of 18 tattoos differentiates me from the stereotypical Arkansan portrayed in the media; I’m sure we would all much rather be thought of as distinct individuals as opposed to members of pre-determined groups or ridiculous stereotypes.
Knowing that I’ve been strong enough to make such permanent rhetorical choices, specifically to separate myself from who I am “supposed” to be, empowers me. Also, knowing that I sat still long enough for thousands of tiny needle strokes to puncture my skin to form an image I deem as meaningful and beautiful reminds me that my conviction for my personal rhetoric was strong enough that I withstood the pain and invested the time and money. Thomas says that concept is what pulls people through the experience of being tattooed. He says that “even the toughest of the tough guys come in and wince and jump around at the sight and sound of the gun,” but that their “need to make a personal statement and their ability to live through it gives them an adrenaline rush of independence and strength” (Thomas).
I have a large custom piece consisting of blue angel wings, a gold halo, and my mother’s name that I had tattooed on my lower back on the 20th anniversary of her death. I’ve shed a few tears and screamed a few four-letter words while being tattooed, but this tattoo was the first one to ever make me lose consciousness. My body convulsed and perspired as a reaction to not only the physical pain, but also the emotional toil and significance of the tribute; Thomas, the artist, caught me from hitting the floor of his tattoo studio just as we approached the second hour of the session.
When I regained consciousness, I quickly became so afraid of experiencing that intensity again that I thought I wouldn’t be able to allow him to finish. But I looked at the unfinished image in the mirror and saw a fragmented tribute to my mother; that was unacceptable. I composed myself and asked Thomas to finish as tears welled in my eyes. I told myself that if my mother could bear the physical toil of childbirth to bring me into the world, I could bear another hour of needles puncturing my skin to complete my tribute to her. If that isn’t empowering, I’m not sure what is.
The Rhetoric of Body Piercings
If tattoos are a combination of symbols strategically placed on bodies to express, persuade, and/or reveal the most effective message possible and they depend on the intertextuality of rhetorical situations, familial narratives, significant memories, then body piercings must follow in their footsteps. Outside of the stereotype that piercings typically tag along with tattoos in several lifestyles, both movements hinge on the need for expression.
Body piercings, though once regarded as only a tradition for primitive people, are now much like tattooing; they are considered art and symbols of cultural identity. They have graduated well beyond ear piercing, the ever-so-trendy navel piercing of the 1990s, and even the gothic fashion they were once so widely associated with. Pamela Cantor, a psychology instructor at The Cambridge Hospital and Harvard Medical School, says that piercings are looked at upon as more of a social event now; people who get pierced today do it like “the way people in an earlier generation would go to a sleepover and polish nails” (“Tattoos. Pierce. How Come?”).
Jennifer Hathcoat, body piercer and co-owner of Golden Lotus Tattoo Studios, considers body piercings to be a rhetorical choice; she says it is an “accent that adds beauty to someone’s body and tells something about who they are” (Hathcoat). But she also considers it to be a work of art for both the piercer and the pierced in that it is “a lifestyle…it’s more than just a simple stick with a needle. It involves placement of accent to flow with the body part being pierced” (Hathcoat). Clearly Hathcoat is denying that piercings are merely a mark of certain lifestyles and is affirming that having them is a lifestyle in and of itself.
Joan Jacobs Brumberg, author of The Body Project: An Intimate History of American Girls, would seem to agree; she contends that “piercings prove, in a public way, that your body is your own,” a reincarnation of Cixous’ belief that your body must be heard (134). And while Brumberg agrees that personal politics are at play with piercings, she also acknowledges them to be “a symbol of sexual liberation” as well (134).
The Resistance and Empowerment of Body Piercings
But how, if like tattoos, are body piercings rhetoric of resistance if they are simultaneously so fashionable? Hathcoat again gestures to difference in lifestyle. She says that “it’s not always easy. I’m sure I’m judged mainly because of my stretched ear piercings, but having them is a part of who I am no matter who relates to them or who doesn’t like them” (Hathcoat). She also notes that there are many trends that differentiate groups of people who are not necessarily found to be universally appealing, but who are widely accepted, such as “certain hairstyles, long black trench coats on a certain looking white male, tie-dyed and hippie style clothes, and oversized baggy jerseys and jeans.” She argues that “it’s just a matter of what the piercing means to you and your motive for getting it” (Hathcoat).
I remember my father coming to see me when I lived in Las Vegas in 1997. He’d heard me on the phone a few days before and said I sounded strange. Of course I didn’t tell him it was because I paid for a needle to be shoved through my tongue and a 12-gauge barbell now resided there. So needless to say when he saw it, he understood why I sounded the way I did and he was not amused. He disapproved of my brother wearing a diamond stud in his ear in the 1980s when that was all the rage; a barbell through my tongue was a completely foreign and ghastly thing to have, especially for his daughter who he so wanted to be pristine like her mother. I was raised with my parent’s wishes for me to have lady-like crossed legs, pageant-perfect hair, and porcelain doll skin. The girly-girl in me liked the idea of such beauty, but the rebel in me always pushed for more room in the definition of beauty. My father came to understand and even encourage that independent side of me while raising me alone after my mother’s death, but the tongue piercing was still a shock. I didn’t do it to hurt or shock him; I did it because the rebel in me always wins, and I firmly believed I could do my part to stretch the definition of beauty and acceptance of differences. That type of resistance is always empowering.
To resist is empowering. Like Foucault believes, there will always be room and reason for resistance. Political, sexual, personal, and social resistance all rely on rhetorical theories and strategies to empower the oppressed and persuade change. The rhetoric of Cixous, Foucault, and Kristeva are forever connected to the rhetoric of tattoos and body piercings; both the rhetoricians and the art forms use exercises in rhetoric to place personal politics at the forefront of their motives, and both empower through resistance. “One must remember that power is not an ensemble of negation, refusal, exclusion. But it produces effectively. It is likely that power produces right down to individuals themselves,” according to Foucault (Foucault). Knowing that reminds me that the powers of rhetoric and of resistance are alive and well in the arts of tattooing and body piercing, and that gives me hope that there will always be someone to challenge status quos.
Works Cited
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Brumberg, Joan Jacobs. The Body Project: An Intimate History of
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Cixous, Helene, Keith Cohen and Paula Cohen. “The Laugh of the Medusa.” Signs 1. 4 (1976): 875-893. JSTOR. Web. 15 Jan 2010
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Thomas, Chris. Personal interview. 22 April 2008.
Vatz, Richard E. “The Myth of the Rhetorical Situation.” University of Washington, n.d. Web. 2 Jan. 2010.
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